Hunter-Gatherers
Most (possibly all) hunter-gatherer societies imbue the land with spirituality, viewing it as sacred, alive, or imbued with spiritual forces. Many practice animism, the belief that the land, animals, plants, and even inanimate features like rocks and rivers possess spirits or consciousness.
Hunter-gatherers usually see themselves as part of the land rather than separate from it. Their myths and rituals frequently centre on the land, explaining its features.
For example, Australian Aboriginal cultures view the land as inseparable from the Dreamtime, the spiritual framework of creation. The land is imbued with the spirits of the ancestral beings and retains their essence. Specific locations, such as rocks, caves, waterholes, or trees, are considered sacred because of their connection to these beings.
The Dreamtime exists outside of linear time; it is both the distant past and a continuing presence. It connects the spiritual world, the present, and future generations, forming a cycle of existence. The Dreamtime provides the laws by which people should live. These laws guide moral behaviour, social relationships, and the sustainable use of the environment.
Dreamtime stories are passed down through oral tradition, art, dance, and song, ensuring that cultural knowledge is preserved and transmitted.
The Abrahamic Religions
The Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) also imbue certain lands with spirituality. But in these religions, the land is often considered sacred because of its association with divine events, covenants, or revelations, rather than being inherently alive or spiritually autonomous.
Israel is sacred in Judaism because it was promised by God to Abraham and his descendants as part of the divine covenant (Genesis 12:1-3, 15:18). It is seen as a place to fulfill God’s laws and maintain a spiritual connection.
Places like Jerusalem, especially the Temple Mount, are revered as direct points of connection between God and His people. Specific locations, such as Mount Sinai, where Moses received the Torah, also carry spiritual significance.
For Christianity, sites associated with the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ (e.g., Jerusalem, Bethlehem, the Sea of Galilee) are considered sacred and are frequent destinations for pilgrimage.
Christians continue to venerate sites tied to biblical events, and these locations are imbued with spiritual meaning because of their historical and theological importance.
Mecca and Medina are the holiest cities in Islam, with Mecca housing the Kaaba, the qibla (direction of prayer), and the destination of the Hajj pilgrimage.
Nationalism
Nationalism views land as a central and defining element of a nation’s identity, sovereignty, and collective consciousness. Unlike spiritual or ecological perspectives, nationalism ties land to ideas of political power, cultural heritage, and historical continuity. It transforms land into a symbol of national unity, pride, and legitimacy.
Land is seen as the physical foundation of a nation-state, where sovereignty is expressed through clearly defined and defended borders. The control of territory is essential for self-determination and independence.
Strategically significant lands—due to resources, geography, or history—are often prioritised and fiercely contested.
While nationalism may not inherently view land as “spiritual,” it often inspires a quasi-religious reverence for the land as part of the nation’s essence. National anthems, flags, and rituals frequently celebrate the land. For example:
“We’ve golden soil and wealth for toil,
Our home is girt by sea;
Our land abounds in nature’s gifts
Of beauty rich and rare.”
Phrases like “motherland” or “fatherland” express a deep emotional bond with the land.
Nationalism has historically driven expansionist policies, such as imperialism or annexation, as nations seek to “reclaim” or “unify” their perceived rightful territories. Nationalism often fuels disputes over land seen as critical to national identity (e.g., Kashmir, Crimea, or Palestine).
Nationalism often secularizes the significance of land, focusing on cultural and historical meaning rather than sacred or spiritual connections.
Yet underlying each of these views of land is the territorial imperative.
The Territorial Imperative
The term gained prominence from Robert Ardrey’s 1966 book The Territorial Imperative, which argued that territoriality is a fundamental biological drive shaping human and animal behaviour alike.
The term refers to the instinct or drive within animals, including humans, to claim, defend, and control a specific area or territory. It is a concept rooted in the study of animal behaviour and psychology, highlighting the significance of territoriality in survival, reproduction, and social dynamics.
Many animals establish territories to secure resources such as food, mates, and shelter. This behaviour helps reduce competition and ensures better chances of survival for their offspring.
Animals often mark territories with physical signals (like scent marking) or behavioural displays (like vocalizations or aggression) to ward off intruders.
In humans, territoriality can manifest in various forms, such as personal space, property ownership, or national boundaries. It also plays a role in social and cultural behaviours, including the need for privacy and the defence of community or national identity.
Ardrey argues that animals, including humans, are often more determined in defending territory than in conquering it. He suggests that defending an already-established territory is more critical to survival than acquiring new land, as the territory provides essential resources like food, shelter, and mating opportunities.
Once a territory is established, its owner has invested time and energy in marking and maintaining it, making its loss more detrimental. Attempting to take over a new territory involves greater risks, such as injury or expulsion by stronger opponents, whereas defence leverages the familiarity and home ground advantage.